Patient-centred health risk using an Evidence Based Medicine approach
Who created it and how often is it reviewed and updated?
This
health risk assessment is brought to you by
Expert-24 Limited. Expert-24 Ltd has
full editorial control over content and strives to ensure that the content is:
·
Robust - All information used
is derived from reputable, referenced sources and subject to rigorous expert
review. The content is written by the medical staff of Expert-24 and reviewed
by an independent Expert Review Panel. All content is
subject to regular review and updated to incorporate the latest evidence.
Oxford Health Consulting was commissioned to conduct independent research to
determine the model for disease and mortality-specific risks, the contents and
its assumptions. The research and statistical modelling behind the risk
assessment has been led by Dr. John Fletcher. Dr. Fletcher is deputy editor of
the Canadian Medical Association Journal. He holds a Masters degree in Public
Health Quantitative Methods and is a member of the Royal College of General
Practitioners.
·
Independent - The content on the site is provided by
Expert-24 Limited, an independent UK company providing knowledge automation and
decision support tools to improve health and wellbeing. No member of the Expert
Review Panel has any financial stake in Expert-24 Ltd. Content creation and
ongoing Quality Assurance is provided by Expert-24 Ltd and its Expert Review
Panel.
·
Up to date - All clinical material is subject to review
by Expert-24 and its Expert Review Panel at least annually.
Why is this health risk assessment different than others?
Most
health risk assessments say if a person is at high, medium or low risk of
either dying from or developing a given medical condition. Most also indicate
what lifestyle factors contribute to this risk. What they do not say is the
magnitude of each risk for an individual and how much that person’s risk will
decrease if they change their lifestyle. For example, if one is at moderate
risk of both bowel cancer and heart disease, most people would be unaware that
their risk of heart disease is still five times higher than their risk of bowel
cancer.
In order
to construct an electronic risk assessment tool for health and disease states,
it is necessary to provide supporting research evidence and a method of
encapsulating the best estimate of relative risk. For each medical condition,
it is necessary to present credible estimates of risk, based on evidence from
relevant, peer reviewed medical research. Important features of the risk
assessment tool are:
·
The
tool gives numerical estimates of risk, rather than an imprecise statement such
as "increased risk" or "reduced risk".
·
The
tool has the capability for interaction, allowing users to explore the impact
on their personal risk of changing individual risk factors.
·
The
tool utilises best available medical evidence
The aim of
this project is to provide healthy people with a quantitative assessment of
their personal risk of developing some important diseases and some of the
factors that influence their risk. This is an ambitious task and we would not
claim to have produced the definitive approach. Although we believe this is the
most informative collection of disease prediction equations available at the
present time they do have limitations. The ones we are aware of are outlined
below.
What exactly does a given percentage risk mean?
Someone
looking at their risk of lung cancer until the age of 50 should read this model
as saying, "Assuming survival to age 50 the chance of developing lung
cancer during that time would be (some predicted value)". This approach
has the appeal that changing risk factors will have the expected impact on
cumulative risk and the mathematics remains transparent. We chose the risk of
developing a certain condition rather than the risk of dying from it because
for many people the fear of living and dealing with a disabling disease is as
frightening as dying from it.
This is
different than lifetime risk calculations, which generally calculate the risk
of dying from a given condition. Lifetime risk must take account of the fact
that we all die of something in the end and calculating the relative
contribution of common competing causes of death at various ages is difficult.
Not only that, but the interpretation by users is complex. For example, a user
of an interactive model predicting lifetime risk of lung cancer would see their
individual risk of lung cancer fall with increasing cigarette consumption,
because they would be dying of heart disease and chronic lung disease before
they could get lung cancer.
How accurate are these percentages?
These
models are good for illustrating the change in risk due to the presence or
absence of single risk factors for prediction times of up to 5 years. They are
likely to be reasonably good for 15 or 20 years and for combinations of several
risk factors. For longer prediction times and varying more than, say, four risk
factors the results should be regarded as illustrative rather than precise. The
absolute level of risk for an individual may also be wide of the mark because
the majority of overall risk remains unexplained in most research studies. This
is why "confidence intervals" have not been included. That said these
prediction equations do calculate the best estimate of risk that can be
provided on the data given.
Is this
useful in the end? We believe it is. We believe that putting some
quantification on risk allows users to explore the possible impact on their
health of altering what they do. We find this approach more informative
than a bland statement of "high risk" that is often value laden or
that a certain action will "cut down" a risk without any indication
of by how much.
Is risk really reversible?
This is a
difficult question to answer, but in many cases the answer seems to be,
"yes". This is good news for people with high risks who are older.
Intuition might tell you that you are constantly doing damage to your body that
accumulates over time, and in many cases that may be true. An example of this
is in skin cancer, where the earlier and more often you are badly burned in
life, the higher your risk of skin cancer. Staying out of the sun when you are
old cannot reverse this risk.
However,
there is good evidence that for heart disease, for example, your risks can be
significantly reduced no matter what your age. Cholesterol reduction by
medications called "statins" reduces the risk of heart attack, angina
or sudden death from heart problems by up to 30%, and this is entirely
independent of age. Similarly, blood pressure reduction by drugs reduces the
risk of stroke and heart disease by 25% - again entirely independent of age.
Because in general it is older people who have the highest risks, they actually
stand to benefit the most from treatment.
The risk
for developing heart disease in tobacco users has been shown to decline to a
level comparable with a person who has never smoked within 2-3 years of giving
up. Furthermore, the risk of having a stroke is reversed after 5-10 years of
stopping. Studies have also shown that life expectancy improves even in people
who stop smoking later in life (i.e. at 65 years or older). The risk of lung
cancer, however, may not be reversible.
The
reduction of risk that can be obtained from changing lifestyle habits such as
diet, alcohol consumption and exercise is largely unknown. Therefore, the
amount of risk reduction that can be expected from optimising these habits
needs to be viewed with caution. Certainly they should not take the place of
blood pressure control, cholesterol control, and smoking cessation as goals.
How good is the evidence?
Our aim in
searching for evidence was to identify up to ten high quality, relevant
research studies for each topic. We used Medline to search using free text,
MeSH terms and thesaurus search terms specific to each medical condition. To
narrow the documents we used filters using "risk" and study design
type; cohorts, case control, longitudinal, follow up. Searches were limited to
studies published in English language and human studies. Although a
comprehensive systematic review of the literature on each disease was not
possible due to the scope of this project, we feel that the evidence used
represents a reasonable cross-section of high-quality literature on the
subjects in question.
What we
have done is to seek out plausible values of relative risk to use in the
prediction equations. We have used an approach that searches for high quality
research studies and have then applied our judgement tempered by Austin
Bradford Hill's criteria for causation when selecting which risks to use.
Hill's criteria are: strength, consistency, specificity, temporality, biological
gradient, plausibility, coherence, experimental evidence and analogy.
If this
sometimes appears somewhat subjective then that is because at times it is a
matter of judgement. The judgements have seldom altered the relative risk by
more than a small amount. For each risk factor we had to choose a value to use
in the model and have been faced at times with a range from which to choose.
While a meta analysis may provide the best point estimate, one is not always
available and would be spurious to conduct on the sample of studies we have
used for each condition. Given the level of uncertainty surrounding an
individual's absolute personal risk we are comfortable with a comparatively
lesser degree of uncertainty regarding a risk factor's relative risk.
What is the mathematical model that is used?
The actual
mathematical and statistical models and risk coefficients that are used to
determine risk are proprietary at this time, but have been validated by the
authors and reviewers to be appropriate for use in this setting.
References:
Coronary heart disease
Most recently reviewed:
1. Halbert
SC et al. Tolerability of red yeast rice (2,400 mg twice daily) versus
pravastatin (20 mg twice daily) in patients with previous statin intolerance.
Am J Cardiol. 2010 Jan 15;105(2):198-204
2.
Lloyd-Jones DM et al. Defining and Setting National Goals for Cardiovascular
Health Promotion and Disease Reduction. The American Heart Association’s
Strategic Impact Goal Through 2020 and Beyond. Circulation Feb 2, 2010:
586-613
Guidelines reviewed annually:
1.
Prevention of cardiovascular disease at population level. National Institute
for Health and Clinical Excellence. June 2010
http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/13024/49273/49273.pdf
2. Aspirin
for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: U.S. Preventive Services Task
Force, revised 2009.
http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/uspsasmi.htm
3. Risk
estimation and the prevention of cardiovascular disease. A national clinical
guideline, revised 2007. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network
http://www.sign.ac.uk/guidelines/fulltext/93-97/index.html
Articles from previous updates:
1. Brugts
JJ, Yetgin T, Hoeks SE, et al. The benefits of statins in people without
established cardiovascular disease but with cardiovascular risk factors:
meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2009;338:b2376.
2.
Antithrombotic Trialists' (ATT) Collaboration, Baigent C, Blackwell L, Collins
R, et al. Aspirin in the primary and secondary prevention of vascular disease:
collaborative meta-analysis of individual participant data from randomised
trials. Lancet 2009;373(9678):1849-1860.
3. Almgren
T, et al. "Stroke and coronary heart disease in treated hypertension - a
prospective cohort study over three decades", J Int Med June 2005, 257(6):
496-502
4. Viikari
JS, et al. "Risk factors for coronary heart disease in children and young
adults", Acta Paediatr Suppl Dec 2004, 93(446): 34-42
5. Knekt
P, et al. "Antioxidant vitamins and coronary heart disease risk: a pooled
analysis of 9 cohorts", Am J Clin Nutr Dec 2004, 80(6): 1508-20
6. Kaur S,
et al. "The impact of environmental tobacco smoke on women's risk of dying
from heart disease: a meta-analysis", J Women's Health Oct 2004,
13(8):888-97
7.
Ciardullo AV, et al. "Non-HDL cholesterol predicts coronary heart disease
in primary prevention: findings from an Italian 40-69 year old cohort in
general practice", Monaldi Arch Chest Dis June 2004, 62(2):69-72
8. Pereira
MA, et al. "Dietary fiber and risk of coronary heart disease: a pooled
analysis of cohort studies", Arch Int Med Feb 2004 164(4):370-6
9. Britton
A, Mamot M "Different measures of alcohol consumption and risk of coronary
heart diseas and all-cause mortality: 11 year follow-up of the Whitehall II
Cohort Study", Addiction Jan 2004 99(1):109-16
10.
Evidence-based guidelines for cardiovascular disease prevention in women: 2007
update. American Heart Association - Professional Association. 2004 Feb
(revised 2007 Mar 20).
11.
Summary of recommendations for clinical preventive services. American Academy
of Family Physicians - Medical Specialty Society. 1996 Nov (revised 2007 Aug).
12. Joint
British Societies (2005) JBS 2: Joint British Societies' guidelines on
prevention of cardiovascular disease in clinical practice. Heart 91(Suppl 5),
v1-v52.
13.
Bobrie, G. et al. Cardiovascular prognosis of "masked hypertension"
detected by blood pressure self-measurement in elderly treated hypertensive
patients. JAMA. 2004 Mar 17;291(11):1342-9.
14. Cooper
A, O'Flynn N. Risk assessment and lipid modification for primary and secondary
prevention of cardiovascular disease: summary of NICE guidance. BMJ
2008;336:1246-1248.
15. The
general public 2008 NICE guideline on cholesterol is available at:
http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG67publicinfo.pdf
16. Becker
DJ, Gordon RY, Halbert SC, et al. Red yeast rice for dyslipidemia in
statin-intolerant patients. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2009;150(12):830-39.
17.
Rissanen, T.H., "Low intake of fruits, berries and vegetables is
associated with excess mortality in men: the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease
Risk Factor (KIHD) Study", Journal of Nutrition, 01 Jan 2003, 133(1), 199-204
18.
Malyutina, S.et al, "Relation between heavy and binge drinking and
all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in Novosibirsk, Russia: a prospective
cohort study" Lancet 2002; 360: 1448-54
19. Manson
JE et al. Walking compared with vigorous exercise for the prevention of
cardiovascular events in women. N Engl J Med 2002 Sep 5;347(10):716-25
20. Yu S.
et al, Caerphilly study.What level of physical activity protects against
premature cardiovascular death? The Caerphilly study. Heart 2003 May;89(5):502-6
21. Lakka,
H.M., "Abdominal obesity is associated with increased risk of acute
coronary events in men", European Heart Journal, 01 May 2002; 23(9):
706-13
22.
Abbasi, F., "Relationship between obesity, insulin resistance, and
coronary heart disease risk.", J Am Coll Cardiol. 04 Sep. 2002; 40(5):
937-43
23.
Kannel, W.B., "Risk stratification of obesity as a coronary risk
factor.", American Journal of Cardiology, 1 Oct. 2002; 90(7): 697-701
24.
Ashton, W.D., "Body mass index and metabolic risk factors for coronary
heart disease in women." European Heart Journal, 01 Jan. 2001; 22(1):
46-55
25.
Tanasescu, M., "Exercise type and intensity in relation to coronary heart
disease in men." JAMA 23 Oct 2002; 288(16): 1994-2000
26.
Schnohr, P., "Coronary heart disease risk factors ranked by importance for
the individual and community. A 21 year follow-up of 12 000 men and women from
The Copenhagen City Heart Study.", European Heart Journal, 01 Apr 2002;
23(8): 620-6
27.
Orford, J.L., "A comparison of the Framingham and European Society of
Cardiology coronary heart disease risk prediction models in the normative aging
study." American Heart Journal, 01 Jul. 2002; 144(1): 95-100
28.
Clarke, R., "Underestimation of the importance of blood pressure and
cholesterol for coronary heart disease mortality in old age." European
Heart Journal, 01 Feb. 2002; 23(4): 286-93
Stroke
Most recently reviewed:
1.
Amarenco P and Labreuche J.”Lipid management in the prevention of stroke:
review and updated meta-analysis of statins for stroke prevention”. Lancet
Neurology, Vol. 8 Issue 5, 453-463 May 2009 doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70058-4
Guidelines reviewed annually:
1.
Goldstein, L B et al. Primary Prevention of Stroke. AHA/ASA Guideline in
Stroke 2006;37:1583-1633
References from previous updates:
1.
Antithrombotic Trialists' (ATT) Collaboration, Baigent C, Blackwell L, Collins
R, et al. Aspirin in the primary and secondary prevention of vascular disease:
collaborative meta-analysis of individual participant data from randomised trials.
Lancet 2009;373(9678):1849-1860.
2.
Connolly SJ, Ezekowitz MD, Yusuf S, et al, for the RE-LY Steering Committee and
Investigators. Dabigatran versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation.
N Engl J Med 2009;361(12):1139-1151.
3.
Almgren T, et al. "Stroke and coronary heart disease in treated
hypertension -- a prospective cohort study over three decades." J Intern
Med June 2005, 257(6):496-502
4. Bath
PM, Gray LJ "Association between hormone replacement therapy and
subsequent stroke: a meta-analysis." BMJ 12/02/05 330(7487):342
5. Ni
Mhurchu C, et al. "Body mass index and cardiovascular disease in the
Asia-Pacific Region: an overview of 33 cohorts involving 310 000
participants." Int J Epidemiol Aug 2004, 33(4):751-8
6. Iso H,
et al. "Alcohol consumption and risk of stroke among middle-aged men: the
JPHC Study Cohort I." Stroke May 2004 35(5):1124-9
7.
Etminan M, et al. "Risk of ischaemic stroke in people with migraine:
systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies" BMJ. 2005
Jan 8, 330(7482):63
8.
Panagiotakos DB, et al. "Risk factors of stroke mortality: a 40-year
follow-up of the Corfu cohort from the Seven-Countries Study"
Neuroepidemiology, 11/12/2003, 22(6):332-8
9. Bath,
P.M. and Gray, L.J. (2005) Association between hormone replacement therapy and
subsequent stroke: a meta-analysis. British Medical Journal 330(7487), 342.
10.
National Collaborating Centre for Chronic Conditions (2006) Hypertension.
Management of hypertension in adults in primary care: pharmacological update
(full NICE guideline). Clinical guideline 18 (update). Royal College of
Physicians and British Hypertension Society. www.nice.org.uk
11. Stroke
prevention. Lipid management. In: Canadian best practice recommendations for
stroke care: 2006. Ottawa (ON): Canadian Stroke Network, Heart & Stroke
Foundation of Canada; 2006. p. 25-7.
12. Stroke
prevention. Blood pressure management. In: Canadian best practice
recommendations for stroke care: 2006. Ottawa (ON): Canadian Stroke Network,
Heart & Stroke Foundation of Canada; 2006. p. 22-4.
13. Stroke
prevention. Life style and risk factor management. In: Canadian best practice
recommendations for stroke care: 2006. Ottawa (ON): Canadian Stroke Network,
Heart & Stroke Foundation of Canada; 2006. p. 17-21.
14. The
2008 National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence guideline on
cholesterol (public) is available at:
http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG67publicinfo.pdf
15. EUSI
Executive Committee and EUSI Writing Committee, "Ischaemic Stroke
Prophylaxis and Treatment", European Stroke Initiative Recommendations
2003
16.
Casiglia, E., "Weak effect of hypertension and other classic risk factors
in the elderly who have already paid their toll." J Hum Hypertens, 01 Jan
2002; 16(1): 21-31.
17.
Lernfelt, B., "Cerebral atherosclerosis as predictor of stroke and
mortality in representative elderly population.", Stroke, 01 Jan 2002;
33(1): 224-9.
18.
Weverling-Rijnsburger, A.W., "High-Density vs Low-Density Lipoprotein
Cholesterol as the Risk Factor for Coronary Artery Disease and Stroke in Old
Age.", Arch Intern Med 14 Jul 2003; 163(13): 1549-54.
19.
Whisnant, J.P., "Effect of time since onset of risk factors on the
occurrence of ischemic stroke." Neurology 12 Mar 2002; 58(5): 787-94.
20.
Kernan, W.N., "Insulin resistance and risk for stroke." Neurology 24
Sep 2002; 59(6): 809-15.
21.
Vermeer, S.E., "Homocysteine, silent brain infarcts, and white matter
lesions: The Rotterdam Scan Study." Ann Neurol 01 Mar 2002; 51(3): 285-9.
22. Wong,
T.Y., "Cerebral white matter lesions, retinopathy, and incident clinical
stroke." JAMA 3 Jul 2002; 288(1): 67-74.
23. Dey,
D.K., "Waist circumference, body mass index, and risk for stroke in older
people: a 15 year longitudinal population study of 70- year-olds." J Am
Geriatr Soc 01 Sep 2002; 50(9): 1510-8.
24.
Wilson, P.W., "Overweight and obesity as determinants of cardiovascular
risk: the Framingham experience." Arch Intern Med 9 Sep 2002; 162(16):
1867-72.
25. Hadat,
C. et al, "Ethnic differences in cerebrovascular risk factors: A UK
case-control study" (unpublished) Accessed at
http://www.kenes.com/stroke5/Abstracts/176.htm
26.
Wassertheil-Smoller, S., "Effect of Estrogen Plus Progestin on Stroke in
Postmenopausal Women: The Women's Health Initiative: A Randomized Trial."
JAMA, 28 May 2003; 289(20): 2673-84.
27.
Lavallée, P., "Association between influenza vaccination and reduced risk
of brain infarction."Stroke 01 Feb 2002; 33(2): 513-8.
Breast Cancer
Most recently reviewed:
1. American Cancer Society
Guidelines for the early detection of cancer at
http://www.cancer.org/Healthy/FindCancerEarly/CancerScreeningGuidelines/american-cancer-society-guidelines-for-the-early-detection-of-cancer
2. Duffy,
SW et al. Absolute numbers of lives saved and over diagnosis in breast cancer
screening, from a randomized trial and from the Breast Screening Programme in
England. J. Med. Screen 2010; 17:25-30
3.
Canadian Expert Panel on Tobacco Smoke and Breast Cancer Risk, April 2009 at
http://www.otru.org/pdf/special/expert_panel_tobacco_breast_cancer.pdf
4. Schreer,
I. Dense breast tissue as an important risk factor for breast cancer and
implications for early detection. Breast Care 2009; 4(2): 89-92.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2931066/
Guidelines reviewed annually:
NHS Cancer
screening programmes at
http://www.cancerscreening.nhs.uk/
National
Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence at
www.nice.org.uk
Risk of
breast cancer at
http://www.cancer.gov/bcrisktool/
United
States Preventive Services Task Force at
http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/uspstfix.htm
Selected articles from previous reviews:
1.
Gøtzsche PC, Nielsen M. Screening for breast cancer with mammography. Cochrane
Database of Systematic Reviews 2009, Issue 4. Art. No.: CD001877.
2.
Tosteson AN, Stout NK, Fryback DG, for the DMIST Investigators.
Cost-effectiveness of digital mammography breast cancer screening. Ann Intern
Med 2008;148(1):1-10.
3. Sweeney
C, Baumgartner KB, Byers T, Giuliano AR, Herrick JS, Murtaugh MA, et al.
Reproductive history in relation to breast cancer risk among Hispanic and
non-Hispanic white women. Cancer Causes Control. 2008 May ;19(4):391-401.
4.
International Menopause Society concensus statement on HRT and risk of cancer
at:
http://www.imsociety.org/pdf_files/comments_and_press_statements/ims_press_statement_13_05_08.pdf
5.
Benetou, V. et al. Conformity to traditional Mediterranean diet and cancer
incidence: Greek EPIC cohort. British J. Ca. (1 July, 2008) 99, 191-195
6. Kushi,
L.H. et al. American Cancer Society Guidelines on Nutrition and Physical
Activity for Cancer Prevention: Reducing the Risk of Cancer With Healthy Food
Choices and Physical Activity CA Cancer J. Clin. 2006; 56 (5):254-281
7.
Chlebowski RT, et al. Dietary fat reduction and breast cancer outcome: interim
efficacy results from the Women's Intervention Nutrition Study. J Natl Cancer
Inst. 2006 Dec 20;98(24):1767-76.
8. Breast
Cancer Management - alcohol consumption. Clinical Knowledge Summaries. Minor
update May 2007 at:
http://cks.library.nhs.uk/breast_cancer_managing_fh/management/detailed_answers/what_advice_can_i_give_regarding_risk/alcohol_consumption#
9.
Takkouche B, et al. "Personal use of hair dyes and risk of cancer: a
meta-analysis." JAMA May 25, 2005, 293(20):2516-252.
10. Duijts
SF, et al. "The association between stressful life events and breast
cancer risk: a meta-analysis." Int J Cancer Dec. 20, 2003, 107(6):1023-9
11. Boyd
NF, et al. "Dietary fat and breast cancer risk revisited: a meta-analysis
of the published literature." Br J Cancer Nov 2003, 89(9):1672-85
12.
McTiernan A, et al. "Recreational physical activity and the risk of breast
cancer in postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative Cohort
Study." JAMA 10/09/
13. Calle
EE, et al. "Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a
prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults." N Engl J Med Apr 24, 2003,
348(17):1625-38
14.
Rossouw JE et al. "Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in
healthy postmenopausal women: principal results From the Women's Health
Initiative randomized controlled trial." JAMA 2002 Jul 17 288(3):321-33.
15.
Ellison RC et al. "Exploring the relation of alcohol consumption to risk
of breast cancer" Am J Epidemiol. Oct 15, 2001; 154(8):740-7.
16. Key,
T.J. et al, "Epidemiology of breast cancer." Lancet Oncology 01 Mar
2001; 2(3): 133-40
17.
Hamajima, N. et al, "Alcohol, tobacco and breast cancer--collaborative
reanalysis of individual data from 53 epidemiological studies, including 58,515
women with breast cancer and 95,067 women without the disease." British
Journal of Cancer, 18 Nov 2002; 87(11): 1234-45
18.
Bianchini, F., "Overweight, obesity, and cancer risk." Lancet
Oncology 01Sep 2002; 3(9): 565-74
19.
Lahmann, P.H., "A prospective study of adiposity and postmenopausal breast
cancer risk: The Malmö diet and cancer study." International Journal of
Cancer 10 Jan 2003; 103(2): 246-52
20. Boyd,
N.F., "Heritability of mammographic density, a risk factor for breast
cancer." New England Journal of Medicine 19 Sep 2002; 347(12): 886-94
21.
Lillberg, K., "Stressful life events and risk of breast cancer in 10,808
women: a cohort study." American Journal of Epidemiology 1 Mar 2003;
157(5): 415-23
22. Kropp,
S., "Active and passive smoking and risk of breast cancer by age 50 years
among German women." American Journal of Epidemiology 1 Oct 2002; 156(7):
616-26
23. Egan,
K.M., "Active and passive smoking in breast cancer: prospective results
from the Nurses' Health Study." Epidemiology 01 Mar 2002; 13(2): 138-45
24. Band,
P.R., "Carcinogenic and endocrine disrupting effects of cigarette smoke
and risk of breast cancer." Lancet 5 Oct 2002; 360(9339): 1044-9
25. Layde,
P.M., "The independent associations of parity, age at first full term
pregnancy, and duration of breastfeeding with the risk of breast cancer. Cancer
and Steroid Hormone Study Group." Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 01
Jan 1989; 42(10): 963-73
26.
Lipworth, L., "History of breast-feeding in relation to breast cancer
risk: a review of the epidemiologic literature." Journal of the National
Cancer Institute, 16 Feb 2000; 92(4): 302-12
27.
Little, M.P., "Comparison of breast cancer incidence in the Massachusetts
tuberculosis fluoroscopy cohort and in the Japanese atomic bomb
survivors." Radiation Research, 01 Feb 1999; 151(2): 218-24
28. Doody,
M.M., "Mortality among United States radiologic technologists,
1926-90." Cancer Causes Control, 01 Jan 1998; 9(1): 67-75
29. Evans,
J.S., "The influence of diagnostic radiography on the incidence of breast
cancer and leukemia." New England Journal of Medicine 25 Sep 1986;
315(13): 810-5
30. Eunyoung,
C., et al, "Premenopausal Fat Intake and Risk of Breast Cancer"
Journal of the National Cancer Institute, Vol. 95, No. 14, 1079-1085, July 16,
2003
31.
Clavel-Chapelon, F., "Differential effects of reproductive factors on the
risk of pre- and postmenopausal breast cancer. Results from a large cohort of
French women." British Journal of Cancer 4 Mar 2002; 86(5): 723-7
32. Holmes
MD, et al. "Physical activity and survival after breast cancer
diagnosis". JAMA 5 May 2005; 293(20):2479-86
33. Key
TJ, et al. "Body mass index, serum sex hormones, and breast cancer risk
in postmenopausal women" J Natl Cancer Inst. 20 Aug. 2003; 95(16):1218-26
34. Duijts
SF, et al. "The association between stressful life events and breast
cancer risk: a meta-analysis." Int J Cancer 20 December 2003;
107(6):1023-9
35.
Collaborative group on hormonal factors in breast cancer, "Breast cancer
and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on
53,297 women with breast cancer and 100,239 women without breast cancer from 54
epidemiological studies", Lancet, 1996 347:1713-1727
36.
Colditz, et al, "Family History, Age and Risk of Breast Cancer;
Prospective data from the Nurses Health Study", JAMA 1993 270: 338-343
37.
Schairer, et al, "Menopausal Estrogen and Progestin-Estrogen Replacement
therapy and Breast Cancer Risk", JAMA 2000 283: 485-491
Lung Cancer
Most recently reviewed:
1.
http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancerstats/types/lung/incidence/index.htm
Guidelines
reviewed annually:
1. NHS
Information for patients on the nature of cancer.
http://cks.library.nhs.uk/patient_information_leaflet/Cancer
2. NHS
Cancer screening programmes.
http://www.cancerscreening.nhs.uk/
Selected articles from previous reviews:
1. The
International Early Lung Cancer Action Program Investigators, Henschke CI,
Yankelevitz DF, et al. Survival of patients with stage I lung cancer detected
on CT screening. N Engl J Med 2006;355:1763-1771.
2. Wilson
DO, Weissfeld JL, Fuhrman CR, et al. The Pittsburgh Lung Screening Study
(PLuSS): outcomes within 3 years of a first computed tomography scan. Am J
Respir Crit Care Med 2008;178(9):956-961.
3. Yun YH,
et al. "Cigarette smoking and cancer incidence risk in adult men: National
Health Insurance Corporation Study" Cancer Detect Prev. 2005 29(1):15-24.
4. Zhang
B, et al. "Smoking cessation and lung cancer mortality in a cohort of
middle-aged Canadian women", Ann Epidemiol April 2005, 15(4):302-9
5. Lee PN,
Sanders E "Does increased cigarette consumption nullify any reduction in
lung cancer risk associated with low-tar filter cigarettes?", Inhal
Toxicol 16/03/05, 16(13):817-33
6.
Clifford GM, et al. "Cancer risk in the Swiss HIV Cohort Study:
associations with immunodeficiency, smoking, and highly active antiretroviral
therapy." J Natl Cancer Inst March 16, 2005, 97(6):425-32
7.
Marugame T, et al. "Lung cancer death rates by smoking status: comparison
of the Three-Prefecture Cohort study in Japan to the Cancer Prevention Study II
in the USA" Cancer Sci. Feb 2005, 96(2):120-6
8. Vineis
P, et al. "Environmental tobacco smoke and risk of respiratory cancer and
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in former smokers and never smokers in
the EPIC prospective study." BMJ May 2, 2005, 330(7486):277
9.
Eichholzer M, et al. "Body mass index and the risk of male cancer
mortality of various sites: 17-year follow-up of the Basel cohort study."
Swiss Med Wkly Jan 8, 2005, 135(1-2):27-33
10.
Mannisto S, et al "Dietary carotenoids and risk of lung cancer in a pooled
analysis of seven cohort studies" Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev Jan
2004, 13(1):40-8
11. Riboli
E, Norat T "Epidemiologic evidence of the protective effect of fruit and
vegetables on cancer risk." Am J Clin Nutr Sep 2003, 78(3
Suppl):559S-569S.
12.
Bilello, K.S., "Epidemiology, etiology, and prevention of lung
cancer", Clinics in Chest Medicine, 01 March 2002; 23(1): 1-25.
13. Reid,
M.E. et al, "Selenium supplementation and lung cancer incidence: an update
of the nutritional prevention of cancer trial", Cancer Epidemiology,
Biomarkers and Prevention, 2002 Nov;11(11):1285-91.
14. Korte,
J.E., "Dose-specific meta-analysis and sensitivity analysis of the
relation between alcohol consumption and lung cancer risk", American
Journal of Epidemiology, 15 March 2002; 155(6): 496-506.
15.
Ezzati, M.et al, and the Comparative Risk Assessment Collaborating Group,
"Selected major risk factors and global and regional burden of
disease", The Lancet, 2 Nov 2002, 360 (9343): 1347-60
16.
Alberg, A. and Samet, J., "Epidemiology of Lung Cancer", Chest, 01
Jan 2003; 123 (1 suppl): 21S-49S
17. Doll
and Peto, "Mortality and relation to smoking: 20 yrs observations on male
British Doctors", BMJ 1976 2: 1525-1536
18. Doll
et al, "Mortality in relation to smoking:22 years observations on female
British doctors", BMJ 5/4/80 p 967-971
19.
Kreuzer et al, "Lung cancer in non smoking men - results of a case control
study in Germany", British Journal of Cancer 2001 84:134-140
20. Wald
et al, "Does breathing other peoples smoke cause lung cancer?", BMJ
8 November 1986 293:121-1222
21.
Gustavsson et al "Occupational exposure and lung cancer risk: A population
based case referent study in Sweden", American Journal of Epidemiology
152: 32-40
22. Bromen
et al, "Aggregation of lung cancer in families: Results from a population
based case control study in Germany", American Journal of Epidemiology
152:497-505
23.
Floderus et al, "Smoking and mortality: A 21 yr Follow up based on the
Swedish Twin Registry", International Journal of Epidemiology 1988,
17:332-340:
24. Yuan
et al, "Morbidity and mortality in relation to cigarette smoking in
Shanghai, China: A prospective male cohort study", JAMA 1996:275 1646-1650
25.
Benhamou et al, "Lung cancer risk associated with cigar and pipe
smoking", Int J Cancer 1986 37:825-829
26.
Feskanich et al, "Prospective study of fruit and vegetable consumption and
risk of lung cancer among men and women", J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;92
1812-23
27.
Katsoyanni et al, "A case control study of air pollution and tobacco
smoking in lung cancer among women in Athens Preventive medicine", 1991 20
271-8
28. Van
Loon et al, "Occupational exposure to carcinogens and risk of lung
cancer:Results from the Netherlands cohort study", Occupational and
Environmental medicine 1997 54:817-24
29.
Shekelle et al, "Dietary vitamin A and the risk of lung cancer in the
Western Electric Study", Lancet 28/11/1981 p 1185-1189
30.
Alavanja M.C.R. et al, "Lung cancer risk and red meat consumption among
Iowa women", Lung Cancer 2001:34;37-46
31. Cook
N.R., et al, "Effects of beta-carotene supplementation on cancer
incidence by baseline characteristics in the Physician's Health Study (United
States)", Cancer Causes and Control 2000:11;617-626.
Prostate Cancer
Most recently reviewed:
1. Wolf A,
Wender R, Etzioni R, et al; American Cancer Society Prostate Cancer Advisory
Group. American Cancer Society Guideline for the Early Detection of Prostate
Cancer: Update 2010. CA Cancer J Clin 2010; 60: 70-98
2.
Andriole, GL et al; Mortality results from a randomized prostate cancer
screening trial. N Eng J Med 2009;360:1310-1319
3.
Schroder, FH et al; Screening and prostate-cancer mortality in a randomized
European study. N Eng J Med 2009;360:1320-1328
Selected articles from previous reviews:
1. U.S.
Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for prostate cancer: U.S. Preventive
Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 2008 Aug
5;149(3):185-91.
2.
National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence 2008 Guideline on
Prostate Cancer: http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG58PublicInfo.pdf
3. Ilic
D, O'Connor D, Green S, Wilt T. Screening for prostate cancer. Cochrane
Database of Systematic Reviews 2006, Issue 3. Art. No.: CD004720. DOI:
10.1002/14651858.CD004720.pub2.
4.
Prevention of Prostate Cancer. National Cancer Institute, April 2006.
http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/prevention/prostate/patient
5.
Dagnelie PC, et al. "Diet, anthropometric measures and prostate cancer
risk: a review of prospective cohort and intervention studies." BJU Int
May 2004, 93(8):1139-50
6. Johns
LE, Houlston RS "A systematic review and meta-analysis of familial
prostate cancer risk." BJU Int June 2003, 91(9):789-94
7. Dennis
LK, et al. "Problems with the assessment of dietary fat in prostate cancer
studies." Am J Epidemiol Sep 1, 2004, 160(5):436-44
8.
Bonovas S, et al. "Diabetes mellitus and risk of prostate cancer: a
meta-analysis." Diabetologia June 2004, 47(6):1071-8.
9.
Dagnelie PC, et al. "Diet, anthropometric measures and prostate cancer
risk: a review of prospective cohort and intervention studies" BJU Int May
2004, 93(8):1139-50
10.
Brouwer IA, et al. "Dietary alpha-linolenic acid is associated with
reduced risk of fatal coronary heart disease, but increased prostate cancer
risk: a meta-analysis." J Nutr Apr 2004, 134(4):919-22
11.
Etminan M, et al. "The role of tomato products and lycopene in the
prevention of prostate cancer: a meta-analysis of observational studies"
Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev Mar 2004, 13(3):340-5
12.
Giovannucci EL et al. "A prospective study of physical activity and
incident and fatal prostate cancer." Arch Intern Med. 2005 May 9,
165(9):1005-10.
13.
Lippmann et al. Effect of Selenium and Vitamin E on Risk of Prostate Cancer and
Other Cancers. JAMA 2009; 301: 39-51
14. Gaziano
et al. Vitamins E and C in the Prevention of Prostate and Total Cancer in Men:
The Physicians' Health Study II RCT. JAMA 2009; 301:52-62
15. Damber
and Aus. Prostate Cancer. Lancet 2008; 371: 1710-21
16. Terry,
P. et al, "Fatty fish consumption and risk of prostate cancer", The
Lancet, June 2001 Volume 357 Issue 9270 Page 1764
17. Boyle,
P., "The epidemiology of prostate cancer", Urol Clin North America,
01 May 2003; 30(2): 209-17
18. Johns,
L.E., "A systematic review and meta-analysis of familial prostate cancer
risk.", BJU Int, 01-JUN-2003; 91(9): 789-94.
19.
Zeegers, M.P., "Empiric risk of prostate carcinoma for relatives of
patients with prostate carcinoma", Cancer, 15 Apr 2003; 97(8): 1894-903.
20.
Dennis, L.K., "Meta-analysis of measures of sexual activity and prostate
cancer", Epidemiology, 01 Jan 2002; 13(1): 72-9.
21.
Dennis, L.K., "Epidemiologic association between prostatitis and prostate
cancer", Urology, 01 Jul 2002; 60(1): 78-83.
22. Smith,
D.S., "Racial differences in a prostate cancer screening study",
Journal of Urology, 01 Oct 1996; 156(4): 1366-9.
23. Lynge,
E., "Prostate cancer is not increased in men with vasectomy in
Denmark", Journal of Urology, 01 Aug 2002; 168(2): 488-90.
Bowel Cancer
Most recently reviewed:
1. Limsui
D et al. Cigarette smoking and colorectal cancer risk by molecularly defined
subtypes. JNCI 2010; 102(14): 1012-1022
2.
Gonzalez CA and Riboli E. Diet and cancer prevention: Contributions from the
European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study.
European Journal of Cancer 2010; 46: 2555-2562.
3.
Soderlund S et al. Inflammatory bowel disease confers a lower risk of
colorectal cancer to females than to males. Gastroenterology Vol 138, Issue 5,
1697-1703, May 2010.
4.
Long-term effect of aspirin on colorectal cancer incidence and mortality:
20-year follow-up of five randomised trials Peter M Rothwell, Michelle Wilson,
Carl-Eric Elwin, Bo Norrving, Ale Algra, Charles P Warlow, Tom W Meade Lancet
2010; 376: 1741–50
5. Van
Duijnhoven, FJB et al. Fruit, vegetables, and colorectal cancer risk: the
European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr
2009; 89: 1441-1452.
6. Wolin
KY et al. Physical Activity and colon cancer prevention: a meta-analysis.
British J Cancer (10 Feb. 2009) 100, 611-616.
7.
Freedman, AN et al. Colorectal Cancer Risk Prediction Tool for White Men and
Women Without Known Susceptibility. J Clin Onc 2009 (vol.27 no.5): 686-693
8. Edoardo
Botteri, M.Sc. et al. Smoking and Colorectal Cancer: a meta-analysis. JAMA
2008; 300(23): 2765-2778.
9. Levin,
B et al. Screening and surveillance for the early detection of colorectal
cancer and adenomatous polyps, 2008. A joint guideline from the American
Cancer Society, the US Multi-society Task Force on Colorectal Cancer, and the
American College of Radiology. CA Cancer J Clin 2008; 58: 130-160.
10.
Larsson DC, Wolk A. Obesity and colon and rectal cancer risk: meta-analysis of
prospective studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007 Sep; 86 (3): 556-65.
11. Park Y
et al. Fruit and Vegetable Intakes and Risk of Colorectal Cancer in the NIH-AARP
Diet and Health Study. Am J Epidemiology 2007; 166(2): 170-180
12.
Itzkowitz SH and Yio X. Inflammation and Cancer IV. Colorectal cancer in
inflammatory bowel disease: the role of inflammation. Am J Physiol. Gastro
Liver Physio 287:G7-G17, 2004
Guidelines reviewed annually:
1. NHS
Cancer screening programmes at: http://www.cancerscreening.nhs.uk/
2. US
National Cancer Institute at: www.cancer.gov and
http://www.cancer.gov/colorectalcancerrisk/
Selected articles from previous reviews:
1.
Benetou, V. et al. Conformity to traditional Mediterranean diet and cancer
incidence: Greek EPIC cohort. British J. Ca. (1 July, 2008) 99, 191-195
2. Segnan
N, Senore C, Andreoni B, et al, for the SCORE3 Working Group-Italy. Comparing
attendance and detection rate of colonoscopy with sigmoidoscopy and FIT for
colorectal cancer screening. Gastroenterology 2007;132(7):2304-2312.
3. Kushi,
L.H. et al. American Cancer Society Guidelines on Nutrition and Physical
Activity for Cancer Prevention: Reducing the Risk of Cancer With Healthy Food
Choices and Physical Activity CA Cancer J. Clin. 2006; 56 (5):254-281
4.
Sanjoaquin MA et al. "Folate intake and colorectal cancer risk: a
meta-analytical approach", Int J Cancer Feb 2005, 113(5): 825-8.
5. Cho E
et al. :Dairy foods, calcium and colorectal cancer: a pooled analysis of 10
cohort studies", J Natl Cancer Inst. July 2004, 96(13): 1015-22.
6.
Colangelo LA et al. "Cigarette smoking and colorectal carcinoma mortality
in a cohort with long-term follow-up", Cancer Jan 2004 100(2): 288-93
7. Key TJ
et al. "Diet, nutrition and the prevention of cancer", Public Health
Nutr. Feb 2004 7(1A): 187-200
8.
Weingarten MA et al. "Dietary calcium supplementation for preventing
colorectal cancer and adenomatous polyps. Cochrane Database 2004 (1)CD 003548.
9.
Flanders WD et al. "Meat consumption and risk of colorectal cancer",
JAMA Jan 12, 2005 293(2):172-82.
10.
Giovannucci, E., "Modifiable risk factors for colon cancer",
Gastroenterology Clinics of North America, 01 Dec 2002; 31(4): 925-43.
11.
Slattery, M.L., "Physical activity and colon cancer: confounding or
interaction?" Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 01 June 2002;
34(6): 913-9.
12.
Juarranz, M., "Physical exercise, use of Plantago ovata and aspirin, and
reduced risk of colon cancer", European Journal of Cancer Prevention, 01
Oct 2002; 11(5): 465-72.
13.
Bianchini, F., "Overweight, obesity, and cancer risk", Lancet
Oncology, 01 Sep 2002; 3(9): 565-74.
14. Wu,
K., "Calcium intake and risk of colon cancer in women and men",
Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 20 March 2002; 94(6): 437-46.
15.
Almendingen, K., "Lifestyle-related factors and colorectal polyps:
preliminary results from a Norwegian follow-up and intervention study",
European Journal of Cancer Prevention, 01 April 2002; 11(2): 153-8.
16.
Jarvinen et al, "Dietary fat, cholesterol and colorectal cancer in a
prospective study", Br J Cancer 2001:85:357-61
17.
Fuchs et al, "Dietary fibre and the risk of colorectal cancer and adenoma
in women", NEJM 1999:340:169-76
18.
Fernandez et al, "Oral contraceptives and colorectal cancer risk: a meta
analysis", Br. J Cancer 2001 84:722-7
19. Lund
Nilsen et al, "Prospective study of colorectal cancer risk and physical
activity, diabetes, blood glucose, and BMI: exploring the hyperinsulinaemia
hypothesis", Br. J of Cancer 2001 84:417-22
20.
Michels et al, "Prospective study of fruit and vegetable consumption and
incidence of colon and rectal cancers", J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;
92:1740-52
21.
Terry et al, "Fruit, vegetables, dietary fibre and risk of colorectal
cancer", J of Natl Cancer Inst. 2001; 93 525-33
22.
Terry et al, "Prospective study of major dietary patterns and colorectal
cancer risk in women", American Journal of Epidemiology 2001 154:1143-49
23.
Terry et al, "Coffee consumption and risk of colorectal cancer in a
population based prospective cohort of Swedish women", Gut 2001 49:87-90
24.
Lindgren et al Gut, "Adenoma prevalence and cancer risk in familial non
polyposis colorectal cancer", 2002 50:228-34
25. Singh
et al, "Dietary risk factors for colon cancer in a low risk
population", American Journal of Epidemiology 1998 148:761-4
26.
Giovannucci E et al. Physical Activity, Obesity and Risk for Colon Cancer and
Adeoma in Men. Ann Inter Med 1995;122:327-334
27. Fuchs
et al, "A prospective study of family history and the risk of colorectal
cancer", NEJM 1994 331:1669-74
28.
St.John et al, "Cancer risk in relatives of patients with common
colorectal cancer", Annals of Internal Medicine 1993; 118:785-790
29. Howe
et al, "Dietary intake of fibre and decreased risk of cancers of the colon
and rectum: evidence from the combined analysis of 13 case control
studies", J Natl Cancer Inst 1992; 84:1887-1894
30. Thun
et al, "Risk factors for fatal colon cancer in a large prospective
study", J Natl Cancer Inst 1992; 84:1491-1499
31.
Shibata et al, "Intake of vegetables, fruits, beta carotene, vitamin C and
vitamin supplements and cancer incidence among the elderly: a prospective
study", Br. J of Cancer 1992; 66:673-679
Diabetes
Most recently reviewed:
1. Carter
et al, BMJ 2010; 341 c4229, Fruit & vegetable intake and incidence of type
2 diabetes: systematic review and meta analysis
2.
Solomon, D et al. Risk of diabetes among patients with rheumatoid arthritis,
psoriatic arthritis and psoriasis. Ann Rheum Dis 2010;69:2114-2117
3. Weycker
D et al. Excess risk of diabetes in persons with hypertension. J Diabetes
Complications 1 Sep 2009;23(5): 330-6
Guidelines reviewed annually:
1.
National Collaborating Centre for Chronic Conditions. Type 2 diabetes: national
clinical guideline for management in primary and secondary care (update).
London: Royal College of Physicians, 2008.
http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG66diabetesfullguideline.pdf
2.
http://www.diabetes.org.uk, accessed November 21, 2010
Selected articles from previous reviews:
1.
Predicting risk of type 2 diabetes in England and Wales: prospective derivation
and validation of QDScore, BMJ 2009;338:b880
2. Elvira
Luján Massó-González et al. Trends in the Prevalence and Incidence of Diabetes
in the UK - 1996 to 2005 J Epidemiol Community Health
doi:10.1136/jech.2008.080382
3.
Guangwei Li et al. The long-term effect of lifestyle interventions to prevent
diabetes in the China Da Qing Diabetes Prevention Study: a 20-year follow-up
study. Lancet 2008; 371:1783-89
4. Nield
L, Summerbell CD, Hooper L, Whittaker V, Moore H. Dietary advice for the
prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus in adults. Cochrane Database of
Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 3. Art. No.: CD005102. DOI:
10.1002/14651858.CD005102.pub2.
5. Choi
HK, et al. "Dairy consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in men:
a prospective study", Arch Int Med May 9, 2005, 165(9): 997-1000
6.
Weinstein AR, et al. "Relationship of physical activity vs body mass index
with type 2 diabetes in women", JAMA Sep 8, 2004, 292(10): 1188-94
7. Whincip
PH, et al. "British South Asians aged 13-16 years have higher fasting
glucose and insulin levels than Europeans", Diab Med Sep 2005 22(9):1275-7
8.
Lauenborg J "The prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome in a Danish population
of women with previous gestational diabetes is three fold higher than in the
general population" J Clin Endocrin Metab July 2005 90(7): 4004-10
9. Damm P
"Predictive factors for the development of diabetes in women with previous
gestational diabetes mellitus", Am J Obst Gyn Sep 1992 167(3): 607-16
10.
Bhargava, A., "A longitudinal analysis of the risk factors for diabetes
and coronary heart disease in the Framingham Offspring Study", Popul
Health Metr. 2003; 1 (1): 3
11.
Schaefer-Graf, U.M., "Clinical predictors for a high risk for the
development of diabetes mellitus in the early puerperium in women with recent
gestational diabetes mellitus." Am J Obstet Gynecol. 01 Apr 002; 186(4):
751-6.
12. Verma,
A., "Insulin resistance syndrome in women with prior history of
gestational diabetes mellitus." J Clin Endocrinol Metab 01 Jul 2002;
87(7): 3227-35.
13.
Albareda, M., "Diabetes and abnormal glucose tolerance in women with
previous gestational diabetes." Diabetes Care 01 Apr 2003; 26(4):
1199-205.
14. Legro,
R.S., "Prevalence and predictors of risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus and
impaired glucose tolerance in polycystic ovary syndrome: a prospective,
controlled study in 254 affected women." J Clin Endocrinol Metab 01 Jan
1999; 84(1): 165-9.
15.
Yildiz, B.O., "Glucose intolerance, insulin resistance, and
hyperandrogenemia in first degree relatives of women with polycystic ovary
syndrome." J Clin Endocrinol Metab 01 May 2003; 88(5): 2031-6.
16.
Ehrmann, D.A., "Prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance and diabetes in
women with polycystic ovary syndrome." Diabetes Care 01 Jan 1999; 22(1):
141-6.
17. Legro,
R.S., "Diabetes prevalence and risk factors in polycystic ovary
syndrome." Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 01 Mar 2001; 28(1): 99-109.
All Cause Mortality
Most recently reviewed:
Mitrou PN,
Kipnis V, Thiébaut ACM, et al. Mediterranean Dietary Pattern and Prediction of
All-Cause Mortality in a US Population: Results From the NIH-AARP Diet and
Health Study. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2007;167(22):2461-8.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2675176/
Sofi F,
Cesari F, Abbate R, et al. Adherence to Mediterranean diet and health status:
meta-analysis. British Medical Journal. 2008;337:a1344-50.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2533524/
White, IR,
Altmann, DR, Nanchahal, K. Alcohol consumption and mortality: modeling risks
for men and women at different ages. BMJ 2002 Vol 325: 191
http://www.bmj.com/content/325/7357/191.full
Gaziano,
JM et al. Light to Moderate Alcohol Consumption and Mortality in the
Physician’s Health Study Enrollment Cohort. J Am Coll. Card. 2000: Vol 35. No
1.
http://content.onlinejacc.org/cgi/reprint/35/1/96.pdf
Thun, MJ
et al. Alcohol consumption and Mortality among Middle-Aged and Elderly US
Adults. NEJM 1997; 337: 1705-1714
http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199712113372401
Selected articles from previous reviews:
1.
Khaw,
KT, et al. Combined Impact of Health Behaviours and Mortality in Men and Women:
The EPIC Norfolk Prosepctive Population Study. PLoS
2.
Med
5(1): e12. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050012 (January 8, 2008)
3.
Benetou,
V. et al. Conformity to traditional Mediterranean diet and cancer incidence:
Greek EPIC cohort. British J. Ca. (1 July, 2008) 99, 191-195
4.
Kushi,
L.H. et al. American Cancer Society Guidelines on Nutrition and Physical
Activity for Cancer Prevention: Reducing the Risk of Cancer With Healthy Food
Choices and Physical Activity CA Cancer J. Clin. 2006; 56 (5):254-281
5.
Chlebowski
RT, et al. Dietary fat reduction and breast cancer outcome: interim efficacy
results from the Women's Intervention Nutrition Study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2006
Dec 20;98(24):1767-76.
6.
Michels,
K.B., "A prospective study of variety of healthy foods and mortality in
women." Int J Epidemiol 01 Aug 2002; 31(4): 847-54.
7.
Katzmarzyk,
P.T., "Adiposity, adipose tissue distribution and mortality rates in the
Canada Fitness Survey follow-up study." Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 01
Aug 2002; 26(8): 1054-9.
8.
Andersen,
L.B., "All-cause mortality associated with physical activity during
leisure time, work, sports, and cycling to work." Arch Intern Med 12 Jun
2000; 160(11): 1621-8
9.
Prescott,
E., "Importance of light smoking and inhalation habits on risk of
myocardial infarction and all cause mortality. A 22 year follow up of 12 149
men and women in The Copenhagen City Heart Study." J Epidemiol Community
Health 01 Sep 2002; 56(9): 702-6
10.
Fraser,
G.E., "Association among health habits, risk factors, and all-cause
mortality in a black California population.", Epidemiology, Mar 1997; 8
(2): 168-74.
11.
Tilling,
K., "Estimating the effect of cardiovascular risk factors on all-cause
mortality and incidence of coronary heart disease using G-estimation: the
atherosclerosis risk in communities study." American Journal of
Epidemiology 15 Apr 2002; 155(8): 710-8
12.
Yuan
et al, "Follow up study of moderate alcohol intake and mortality among
middle-aged men in Shanghai, China", BMJ 1997 314:18-23
13.
Fuchs
et al, "Alcohol consumption and mortality amongst women", NEJM 1995
332:1245-1250
14.
Wannamethee
et al, "Lifelong teetotallers, Ex drinkers and Drinkers: Mortality and the
incidence of major coronary heart disease events in middle aged British
men", International Journal of Epidemiology 1997 26:523-531
15.
Thun
et al, "Alcohol consumption and mortality among middle aged and elderly US
adults", NEJM 1997 337:1705-1713
16.
Hart
et al, "Alcohol consumption and mortality from all causes, coronary heart
disease and stroke: results from a prospective cohort study of Scottish men
with 21 yrs follow up", BMJ 1999:318:1725-9
17.
"Diabetes
mellitus, coronary heart disease incidence and death from all causes in African
American and European American women". The NHANES I epidemiologic follow
up study
18.
Lotufo
et al , "Diabetes and all cause and coronary heart disease mortality among
US male physicians", Arch Intern Med 2001; 161:242-7
19.
Lotufo
et al, "Diabetes and all cause and coronary heart disease mortality among
US male physicians", Arch Intern Med 2001; 161:242-7
20.
Stamler
et al, "Relationship of baseline serum cholesterol levels in 3 large
cohorts of younger men to long term coronary, cardiovascular and all cause
mortality and to longevity", JAMA 2000;284:311-8
21.
Doll
and Peto, "Mortality and relation to smoking: 20 yrs observations on male
British Doctors", BMJ 1976: 2:1525-1536
22.
Doll
et al, "Mortality in relation to smoking:22 years observations on female
British doctors", BMJ 5/4/80 p 967-971
23.
Jacobs
et al, "Cigarette smoking and mortality risk. Twenty five year follow up
of the seven countries study", Arch Intern Med 1999; 159:733-40
24.
I
Min Lee et al, "Body weight and mortality, a 27 yr follow up of
middle-aged men", JAMA 1993;270:2823-8
25.
Blair
et al, "Body weight change, all cause mortality in the multiple risk
factor intervention trial", Ann Intern Med 1993;119:749-57
26.
Seidell
et al, "Overweight, underweight and mortality. A prospective study of
48287 men and women", Arch Intern Med. 1996;156:958-63
27.
Manson
et al, "Body weight and mortality among women", NEJM 1995; 333:677-85
28.
Colditz
et al, "Oral contraceptive use and mortality during 12 years of follow up:
The Nurses Health Study", Ann Intern Med. 1994;120:821-6
29.
Morris
et al, "Loss of employment and mortality", BMJ 1994; 308:1135-9
30.
Martikainen
et al, "Income differences in mortality: a register based follow up study
of three million men and women", Int Journal of Epidemiology 2001;
30:1397-1405)
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